![]() Today, misinformation campaigns can leverage digital infrastructure that is unparalleled in its reach. Misinformation helped bring Roman emperors to power 8, who used messages on coins as a form of mass communication 9, and Nazi propaganda heavily relied on the printed press, radio and cinema 10. ![]() The psychology and history of misinformation cannot be fully grasped without taking into account contemporary technology. Misinformation has been identified as a contributor to various contentious events, ranging from elections and referenda 5 to political or religious persecution 6 and to the global response to the COVID-19 pandemic 7. However, this fact is insufficient to explain the rise of misinformation, and its subsequent influence on memory and decision-making, as a major challenge in the twenty-first century 2, 3, 4. ![]() ![]() Misinformation - which we define as any information that turns out to be false - poses an inevitable challenge for human cognition and social interaction because it is a consequence of the fact that people frequently err and sometimes lie 1. ![]()
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